Lithium-ion has not yet fully matured and is still improving. Notable advancements have been made in longevity and safety while the capacity is increasing incrementally. Today, Li-ion meets the expectations of most consumer devices but applications for the EV need further development before this power source will become the accepted norm.
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Figure 1 illustrates the capacity drop of 11 Li-polymer batteries that have been cycled at a Cadex laboratory. The 1,500mAh pouch cells for mobile phones were first charged at a current of 1,500mA (1C) to 4.20V/cell and then allowed to saturate to 0.05C (75mA) as part of the full charge saturation. The batteries were then discharged at 1,500mA to 3.0V/cell, and the cycle was repeated. The expected capacity loss of Li-ion batteries was uniform over the delivered 250 cycles and the batteries performed as expected.
Table 2 estimates the number of discharge/charge cycles Li-ion can deliver at various DoD levels before the battery capacity drops to 70 percent. DoD constitutes a full charge followed by a discharge to the indicated state-of-charge (SoC) level in the table.
Lithium-ion suffers from stress when exposed to heat, so does keeping a cell at a high charge voltage. A battery dwelling above 30C (86F) is considered elevated temperature and for most Li-ion a voltage above 4.10V/cell is deemed as high voltage. Exposing the battery to high temperature and dwelling in a full state-of-charge for an extended time can be more stressful than cycling. Table 3 demonstrates capacity loss as a function of temperature and SoC.
On the negative side, a lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the battery stores. As a simple guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage lowers the overall capacity by 10 percent. Applying the peak charge voltage on a subsequent charge will restore the full capacity.
* Similar life cycles apply for batteries with different voltage levels on full charge.** Based on a new battery with 100% capacity when charged to the full voltage.
Figure 6 illustrates dynamic stress tests (DST) reflecting capacity loss when cycling Li-ion at various charge and discharge bandwidths. The largest capacity loss occurs when discharging a fully charged Li-ion to 25 percent SoC (black); the loss would be higher if fully discharged. Cycling between 85 and 25 percent (green) provides a longer service life than charging to 100 percent and discharging to 50 percent (dark blue). The smallest capacity loss is attained by charging Li-ion to 75 percent and discharging to 65 percent. This, however, does not fully utilize the battery. High voltages and exposure to elevated temperature is said to degrade the battery quicker than cycling under normal condition. (Nissan Leaf case)
Only a full cycle provides the specified energy of a battery. With a modern Energy Cell, this is about 250Wh/kg, but the cycle life will be compromised. All being linear, the life-prolonging mid-range of 85-25 percent reduces the energy to 60 percent and this equates to moderating the specific energy density from 250Wh/kg to 150Wh/kg. Mobile phones are consumer goods that utilize the full energy of a battery. Industrial devices, such as the EV, typically limit the charge to 85% and discharge to 25%, or 60 percent energy usability, to prolong battery life(See Why Mobile Phone Batteries do not last as long as an EV Battery)
Environmental conditions, not cycling alone, govern the longevity of lithium-ion batteries. The worst situation is keeping a fully charged battery at elevated temperatures. Battery packs do not die suddenly, but the runtime gradually shortens as the capacity fades.
Modern laptops run cooler than older models and reported fires are fewer. Always keep the airflow unobstructed when running electric devices with air-cooling on a bed or pillow. A cool laptop extends battery life and safeguards the internal components. Energy Cells, which most consumer products have, should be charged at 1C or less. Avoid so-called ultra-fast chargers that claim to fully charge Li-ion in less than one hour.
About the ebike battery. You bought this item to use, so use it. Batteries like that can be rebuilt and considering that it costs $1000, likely much cheaper than a new would cost and worthwhile to investigate. I do this for my drill batteries and you may want to do the same- if you're storing the bike keep the state of charge at like 75% or less. Charge it up to 90%+ when you are going to use it. The level of discharge is more of a function of use than a real choice you make. I try to charge my drill batteries before they run out, hopefully by around 25% but it's use and we can't really control that.
"On the negative side, a lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the battery stores. As a simple guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage lowers the overall capacity by 10 percent. Applying the peak charge voltage on a subsequent charge will restore the full capacity."So this means that I can charge my battery on 3.92v to improve it's life but if I want the full capacity of my battery at any given moment I can go back and charge with a 4.2v charger? Thanks
Natural killer (NK) cells are a predominant part of innate immune cells and play a crucial role in anti-cancer immunity. NK cells can kill target cells nonspecifically, and their recognition of target cells is not restricted by the major histocompatibility complex. NK cells also fight against tumor cells independently of antibodies and prior activation. Of note, umbilical cord blood (UCB) is a rich source of NK cells. Immunotherapies based on UCB-derived NK cells are becoming increasingly researched, and the investigations are producing encouraging results. In recent years, non-modified and modified UCB-derived NK cells have been successfully developed to fight against tumor cells. Herein, UCB-derived NK cell-based immunotherapy is a potential strategy for the treatment of cancer in the future. In this review, we focus on discussing the biological characteristics of UCB-derived NK cells and their application prospects in anti-tumor immunotherapy, including the latest preclinical and clinical researches.
On the whole, the prospects of silicate ceramics are still bright, with many advantages such as stable color, low thermal conductivity, good wear resistance, and high biocompatibility. These materials remain indispensable in oral restoration. They are used in decorative alloys, single tooth prostheses, full contour crowns, and other aspects. They are also suitable for SM and AM, although the AM process is more complicated, which may cause cracks due to cooling and increase the porosity of the ceramic interior and reduce the mechanical properties. Hybrid manufacturing (HM), utilizing a combination of CAD/CAM and 3D printing, will be an interesting endeavor to make dental restorations [3, 18, 22, 27].
Fully anatomic zirconia is a hot topic of research in recent years. Fully desorbed zirconia refers to a restoration with a fully desorbed morphology that is designed and manufactured directly from zirconia by CAD/CAM technology. This process eliminates the need for veneering porcelain and reduces the possibility of restoration failure. Fully desquamated zirconia is extremely strong mechanically and does not cause excessive wear on natural teeth because it is less abrasive than feldspathic ceramics [72]. As this technology has evolved, fully destructive zirconia, which was earlier used mainly in the posterior region, has gradually been applied for the esthetic restoration of anterior teeth.
Diagram of APP illustrating nine FAD mutations that have been incorporated into mouse models. The Aβ domain is highlighted in red, with the β- and γ-cleavage sites identified at residues 671 and 714, respectively, using the numbering convention for full-length 770 amino acid protein. The amino acid sequence of Aβ is outlined in red, with the positions of several commonly used FAD mutations and their amino acid substitutions shown (in bold) alongside the geographic name identifying each variant. Italic residues indicate the three sites at which the Aβ sequence diverges between human and mouse (human is shown). Swe, Swedish; Arc, Arctic; Aus, Austrian; Lon, London; Ind, Indiana; Ibe, Iberian; Flo, Florida
After deciding what experimental question you want to address and which phenotype your model must recapitulate to answer that question, you must next decide whether a transgenic mouse line will suffice or if a knock-in model is needed. The central difference between these two approaches is the pattern of protein expression used to induce disease phenotype. In standard transgenic lines, a synthetic cDNA often encoding a disease-associated mutation is controlled by a heterologous promoter that results in an artificial expression pattern of limited spatial and temporal fidelity to the endogenous gene. In knock-in models, the native expression pattern is fully preserved but the protein now contains a disease-associated mutation (i.e., APPSwe) or human-specific variant (i.e., APOEε4). Standard transgenics typically involve biased overexpression of a single splice variant, while knock-ins preserve native splicing at physiological levels. While it is intuitively preferable to use a model that most closely approaches endogenous expression patterns, there are situations where this is not possible or appropriate and where a transgenic model would do better, particularly in driving robust disease pathology. Knowing which compromises can be tolerated is just as important as knowing which may confound your experimental outcome.
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